Questions On The Protocol Architecture - 1069 Words

Assignment 1 2.3 Protocol: A protocol is predefined set of rules or conventions which governs the way in which two entities co-ordinately cooperate to exchange data. 2.4 Protocol Data Unit(PDU): A PDU is the combination of data from the next higher communications layer and control information. 2.5 Protocol Architecture: The software structure that implements the communications function. Typically, the protocol architecture consists of a layered set of protocols, with one or more protocols at each layer. 2.6 TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) are the two protocols which were designed to provide low level support for internetworking. The term is also used generically to refer to a more comprehensive collection of protocols developed by the U.S. Department of Defense and the Internet community. 2.7 Advantages of Layering in TCP/IP architecture: Layering is the process which is used and helped to reduce the overall problem, which is huge in size, to number of sub problems, which are manageable is size. 2.8 Router: A router is a device that is used to connect dissimilar device. It is present and operates at the Network layer of the OSI model. 2.9 Version of IP, that is prevalent today: IPv4, is the version of IP that is prevalent today. It may also be expected that IPv6 may be prevalent in the future. 2.10 Does all Traffic on internet use TCP ? No, we cannot say like that as there are other protocols such as UDP, which are also usedShow MoreRelatedWeb Architecture And Components Of Web1165 Words   |  5 PagesWeb Architecture and components, which allow the Internet and website to function. 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Beyond Gdp Paper Free Essays

Special attention is devoted to recent developments in the analysis of sustainability, in the study of happiness, in the theory of social choice and fair allocation, and in the capability approach. It is suggested in the conclusion that, although convergence toward a consensual approach is not impossible, for the moment not one but three alternatives to GDP are worth developing. ( JEL I31, E23, E01) 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Beyond Gdp Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now Introduction G DP is recurrently criticized for being a poor indicator of social welfare and, therefore, leading governments astray in their assessment of economic policies. As is well known, GDP statistics measure current economic aactivity but ignore wealth variation, international income flows, household production of services, destruction of the natural environment, and many determinants of well-being such as the quality of social relations, economic security and personal safety, health, and longevity. Even worse, GDP increases when convivial reciprocity is replaced by anonymous market relations and when rising crime, pollution, catastrophes, or health hazards trigger * Fleurbaey: CNRS, University Paris Descartes, CORE (Universite de Louvain) and IDEP. Comments, suggestions and advice by S. Alkire, G. Asheim, A. Atkinson, A. Deaton, E. Diewert, R. Guesnerie, D. Kahneman, A. Krueger, I. Robeyns, P. Schreyer, three referees and Roger Gordon (the Editor) are gratefully acknowledged. defensive or repair expenditures. Not surprisingly, the construction of better indicators of social welfare is also, recurrently, a hot issue in public debate and a concern for politicians and governments. The last two decades have witnessed an explosion in the number of alternative indicators and a surge of initiatives from important institutions such as the OECD, the UNDP, the European Union—more recently the French government has appointed a committee, chaired by Joseph E. Stiglitz and including four other Nobel Prize winners, to propose new indicators of â€Å"economic performance and social progress. In the meantime, welfare economics1 has burgeoned in various directions, involving the theory of social choice, the theory of 1 The expression â€Å"welfare economics† is used here in a very broad sense, including all branches of economics that bear on the definition of criteria for the evaluation of social states and public policies. It is not restricted to the narrow confines of Old and New (or New New) Welfare Economics. 1029 1030 Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. XLVII (December 2009) is much less supported by economic theory than is commonly assumed. The extension of this approach to intertemporal welfare as attempted in â€Å"green† accounting adds even more complications. In view of recent developments in the theory of social choice and fairness, it will be argued that the idea of a â€Å"corrected GDP† is still defendable but implies different accounting methods than usually thought. Second, there is the idea of â€Å"Gross National Happiness,† which has been revived by the burgeoning happiness studies. It will be argued here that the happiness revolution might, instead of bringing about the return of â€Å"utility,† ultimately condemn this concept for being simplistic, and reveal that subjective well-being cannot serve as a metric for social evaluation without serious precautions. Third, there is the â€Å"capability approach † proposed by Amartya Sen, primarily as a framework for thinking rather than a precise method of measurement. This approach has now inspired a vvariety of applications, but most of its premoters are reluctant to seek a synthetic index, a famous exception being the Human Development Index (HDI). It will be argued here that a key aspect of this problem is whether individual valuations of the relevant dimensions of capability can and should be taken into account— an issue over which a dialogue with the two previous approaches might prove very useful. Fourth, there is the growing number of â€Å"synthetic indicators† that, following the lead of the HDI, are constructed as weighted averages of summary measures of social performance in various domains. It will be argued here that, if the three other approaches were fully exploited, there would be little reason to keep this fourth approach alive because it is ill-equipped to take account of the distribution of well-being and advantage among the members of society. The paper is structured as follows. Sections 2–4 deal with monetary measures that are linked to the project of a corrected fair allocation, the capability approach, the study of happiness and its determinants, in conjunction with new developments in the philosophy of social justice and the psychology of well-being. These conceptual developments provide new analytical tools that may be directly useful for concrete measurements. About a decade ago, Daniel T. Slesnick (1998) made the following observation: â€Å"While centrally important to many problems of economic analysis, confusion persists concerning the relationship between commonly used welfare indicators and well-established theoretical formulations† (p. 2108). It is probably safe to say that much the same now holds about the relationship between concrete measures of welfare—old, new, and potential—and upto-date theories. It appears timely to ask what the existing academic literature has to say about alternatives to GDP. The practical importance of a measure of social welfare can hardly be overstated. Ppolicy decisions, cost–benefit analyses, international comparisons, measures of growth, and inequality studies constantly refer to evaluations of individual and collective wellbeing. The fact that monetary measures still predominate in all such contexts is usually interpreted as imposed by the lack of a better index rather than reflecting a positive consensus. The purpose of this paper is, in the light of state-of-the-art welfare economics, to examine the pros and cons of the main alternative approaches to the measurement of social welfare from the perspective of ppolicy evaluation as well as international and intertemporal comparisons. Four approaches are discussed here. First, there is the idea of a â€Å"corrected GDP † that would take account, in particular, of nonmarket aspects of well-being and of sustainability concerns. As will be explained here, a basic problem for this approach is that its starting point, national income, as a candidate for a measure of social welfare, Fleurbaey: Beyond GDP: The Quest for a Measure of Social Welfare GDP. Section 2 revisits the classical results involving the value of total consumption and usually invoked in justification of GDP-like measures. This appears important because some of these results are often exaggerated, while others are little known or even susceptible of developments in future research. Section 3 is devoted to the intertemporal extension of this approach, as featured in the Net National Product (NNP) and â€Å"green† accounting. Section 4 turns to measures based on willingness-to-pay and moneymetric utilities, highlighting the connection with recent developments in the theory of social choice and fairness. This section also briefly discusses cost–benefit analysis, which is an important tool for ppolicy evaluation. Sections 5–7 are devoted to the nonmonetary approaches, namely, synthetic indicators such as the HDI (section 5), happiness studies and the various possible indexes of subjective well-being (section 6), and the capability approach (section 7). Section 8 makes concluding remarks about the relative strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches analyzed in the paper and the prospects for future developments and applications. 2. Monetary Aggregates Revisited The project of correcting GDP has been often understood, after William D. Nordhaus and James Tobin’s (1973) seminal work, as adding or subtracting terms that have the same structure as GDP, i. e. , monetary aggregates computed as quantities valued at market prices or at imputed prices in case market prices are not available. As we will see in this section, economic theory is much less supportive of this approach than usually 2 Nordhaus and Tobin (1973) set out to compute â€Å"a comprehensive measure of the annual real consumption of households. Consumption is intended to include all goods and services, marketed or not, valued at market prices or at their equivalent in oopportunity costs to consumers† (p. 24). 1031 thought by most users of national accou nts. Many official reports swiftly gloss over the fact that economic theory has established total income as a good index of social welfare under some assumptions (which are usually left unspecified). To be sure, there is a venerable tradition of economic theory that seeks to relate social welfare to the value of total income or total consumption. 3 Most of that theory, however, deals with the limited issue of determining the sign of the welfare change rather than its magnitude, not to mention the level of welfare itself. In this perspective, the widespread use of GDP per capita, corrected or uncorrected, as a cardinal measure allowing ppercentage scaling of differences and variations appears problematic. 4 In this section, I review the old and recent arguments for and against monetary aggregates as social welfare indicators. . 1 A Revealed Preference Argument Start from the revealed preference argument that, assuming local nonsatiation, if a consumer chooses a commodity bundle x (with ? different commodities) in a budget set defined by the price vector p, then x is revealed preferred to all bundles y such that py px. If x is interior and assuming differentiability, for an infini tesimal change dx, x + dx is strictly preferred to x by the consumer if and only if pdx 0. Note the importance of the interiority assumption here. How to cite Beyond Gdp Paper, Papers

The Effectiveness of SOX Legislation

Question: Prepare a paper in which you address the following: Brief historical summary on SOX enactment The key ethical components of the SOX Social responsibility implications regarding mandatory publication of corporate ethics One of the main criticisms of SOX is that its implementation presents an unfair burden on smaller organizations. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Why? How might you suggest improvement of the SOX legislation? Answer: Assessing the Effectiveness of SOX Legislation President Bush signed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (Sarbanes-Oxley) into law On 30 July 2002, Moreover, it is also well called as the Corporate and Auditing Accountability and Responsibility Act' ' Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act' and more regularly known as SarbanesOxley, Sarbox or SOX (Leonard, 2011). It is government law of the United States that puts particular, new and viable benchmarks for all U.S. public accounting firms, public company boards and management. In addition to this, as per this act, the top management of the organization should autonomously proclaim the precision of money related data (Bauer, 2009). Sarbanes-Oxley makes it simpler to arraign securities extortion, especially budgetary misrepresentation. A standout amongst the most direct courses in which the Act achieves this goal is to place more noteworthy obligation on senior administration and chiefs, especially autonomous executives and review board individuals, by obliging them to take a generously more proactive part in supervising and checking the budgetary reporting procedure, including divulgence and reporting frameworks and inner controls. While Sarbanes-Oxley expands common and criminal requirement power over the behavior of corporate officers and executives, it doesn't imply to change the common risk procurements that may apply to chiefs' behavior under government securities laws or the normal law obligation of consideration (Holt, 2007). For those nations considering procurements, for example, Sarbanes-Oxley, that place expanded obligations on chiefs, the possibility of executives' considerate risk such obligation o ught to be seen in the connection of whether there are sufficient lawful guards and different procurements accessible to alleviate such obligation without trading off directorial obligation, so companies will have the capacity to draw in and hold qualified corporate executives (Bauer, 2009). Along with this, it should also be noted down that, this act came into power to guard speculators and partners from the possibility of fake secretarial and monetary activities or practices by the organizations. In the same way, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) play a major role in improving monetary disclosures from businesses and stop secretarial fraud. At the same time, this act strongly focus on which records should be stored by the corporations and for how long. In the same way, this indicates how a business ought to store records and not an arrangement of business practices (Fletcher Plette, 2014). It was sanctioned in light of the bookkeeping disgrace in the early 2000s. It authorized as a response to various key commercial and bookkeeping indignity, with those affecting Enron, Tyco International, Adelphia, Peregrine Systems, and WorldCom. These outrages cost financial specialists billions of dollars when the offer costs of influenced organizations given way and shook open trust in the US securities markets. It additionally shields shareholders and the overall population from bookkeeping slips and deceitful practices in the endeavor (Miller Bredeson, 2009). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act influences the money related side of enterprises, as well as IT offices accused of putting away an enterprise's electronic records. The demonstration is not a situated of business practices and does not determine how a business ought to store records; rather, it characterizes which records ought to be put away and for to what extent. This SOX demonstration additionally expresses that how the leading body of the organizations ought to act together. To reinforce corporate responsibility and enhance corporate administration is an alternate real goal of this demonstration. Procurements of the Sarbanes Oxley Act (otherwise known as SOX, SARBOX or S-O) subtle element criminal and common punishments for rebelliousness, accreditation of inside evaluating, and expanded budgetary divulgence (Holt, 2007).There are several provisions, system and strategy established by the SOX act, these are discussed as below: Increases criminal punishments for securities misrepresentation, including budgetary extortion; Eases the standard for banning persons who submit securities extortion from portion as bureaucrat and executives of public organizations Permits the SEC to seek after such officer and chief bars in authoritative processes and additionally in the courts (Huber, 2004). Adds authorizes and fortifies existing approvals, in regards to decimation, modification or distortion of records in examinations, and demolition of review records Provides a longer statute of limitations for securities fraud; Includes whistle blower protections; and (Bauer, 2009). Limits release of securities law violators' obligations There are a few Social obligation suggestions in regards to obligatory production of corporate morals. It influences open U.S. organizations and non-U.S. organizations with U.S. vicinity. SOX act is about commercial administration and budgetary revelation: Makes criminal punishments for check of equity by obliteration of records Development of whistleblower insurances for workers of guarantors (Green, 2004). The Act makes criminal punishments for duping shareholders of traded on an open market organizations (Huber, 2004). The Act approves the PCAOB to reserve itself by obliging guarantors to pay a "yearly bookkeeping Sarbanes-Oxley moreover backings the presentation of corporate deception by securing witness delegates of exchanged on an open business sector associations or their helpers who report illegal activities. Sarbanes-Oxley 301 section, incorporates new Section 10A(m) to the swap Act and obliges that by April 26, 2003 the SEC, by regulation, organize national securities exchanges and NASD to confine the posting of securities of any association, including outside associations, that don't meet the going hand in hand with necessities (Fletcher Plette, 2014). Every individual from the organization's review advisory group must be a chief and must overall be autonomous: The review board must be in charge of employing and releasing the free evaluators (Bauer, 2009). The review board of trustees should be in charge of endorsement or all review and non-review administrations. The review board might get reports from the free evaluators in regards to basic bookkeeping strategies and practices, discourses that have occurred with administration with respect to option medicines of budgetary data under GAAP, and any bookkeeping differences and other material composed interchanges between the inspectors and administration. The review board of trustees must create systems to get and address objections in regards to bookkeeping, inner control and review issues, and to give organization workers a chance to make secret, unknown entries with respect to bookkeeping and inspecting matters (Fletcher Plette, 2014). Yes I am fully agreed that one of the primary reactions of SOX is that its usage exhibits an unjustifiable weight on littler associations. For instance, this demonstration is likewise compulsory and power littler associations take after the new norms for corporate responsibility and new punishments for demonstrations of wrongdoing. Notwithstanding this, such sorts are likewise in charge of employing and releasing the autonomous reviewers that would improve the expenses for the association and decrease gainfulness and additionally income level specifically (Bauer, 2009). Then again, these associations are completely in charge of regard or all reviews and non-review administrations that also create several legal and ethical issues for these organizations (Rasmussen, 2008). The following Recommendation in the context of SOX: Development in review excellence Is a long-lasting anxiety. Sarbanes-Oxley should improve the dependability of the budgetary bazaar and the way of fiscal reporting (Huber, 2004). Completion of Higher Standards for Financial Experts on Audit Committees The Accomplishment of fulfillment agenda: observance Based versus truth Programs determine moral quandary and creation fair result Assessing and cultivating principled society (Holt, 2007). Analyze stresses over the examining calling's regulation toward oneself by making PCAOB and blaming it for coordinating the calling building benchmarks. Enhancing the diverse criterion on the corporate supremacy (DeVay, 2006). References Bauer, A. (2009). The Enron Scandal and the Sarbanes-Oxley-Act. USA: GRIN Verlag. Fletcher, W.H. Plette, T.N. (2014). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act: Implementation, Significance, and Impact. USA: Nova Publishers. Holt, M.F. (2007). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act: costs, benefits and business impacts. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Huber, J.H. (2004). The practitioner's guide to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. USA: American Bar Association, Section of Business Law. DeVay, D. (2006). The Effectiveness of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 in Preventing and Detecting Fraud in Financial Statements. USA: Universal-Publishers. Green, S. (2004). Manager's Guide to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act: Improving Internal Controls to Prevent Fraud. USA: John Wiley Sons. Miller, R. Bredeson, D. (2009). Student Guide to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. USA: Cengage Learning. Bauer, A. (2009). The Enron Scandal and the Sarbanes-Oxley-Act. USA: GRIN Verlag. Leonard, B. (2011). Study of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 Section 404: Internal Control Over Financial Reporting Requirements.USA: DIANE Publishing. Rasmussen, J.H.P. (2008). Guide to Internal Controls: Under Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. USA: CCH Incorporated.